Time Management
Time Management
Preface:
The lack of time is worldwide dispersed phenomenon and it takes different forms in
all human being activities: industrial management, education, administration,
personal duties etc. The time management can be assumed as a process for achieving
personal goals and tasks.
It is easy to claim that the time allocation is a key factor for achieving every personal
goal. Thus, it is important task to identify common requirements, constraints and
relationships, which deal with the allocation if time per activities, concerning different
domains of the society.
This book does not claim that it contains keys for solving the problem of optimal time
management. However, this book is an attempt to summarize the current
achievements and technologies, which are used for planning and managing activities
nowadays, having in mind that all of them are functions of time.
The content of the book tries to summarize the understanding of the time
management, accommodated in the corresponding papers. It illustrates by success
stories the importance and viability of the time management. Illustrations with formal
models for optimal management of time are given. Several cases for time allocation
between sport and academic duties are provided.
The book is a collection of results from a wide range of specialists, competing with the
time requirements. The diversity of the cases concerned is a prerequisite to wide the
potential audience of readers, which face the problem of lack of time in their everyday
activities.
Finally, I would like to add my personal conclusions about the preparation of this
publication. The book is published under the framework of Open Access distribution.
This will give the opportunity for broad access of the scientific community worldwide.
I am grateful to the INTECH publishing department for their kind support and
assistance, which help me for the preparation and edition of this book.
'''Survey: Time Management'''
'''What Do We Know About Time Management?
A Review of the Literature and a Psychometric
Critique of Instruments Assessing
Time Management'''
1. Introduction
Lack of time is a common complaint in western society. In response, there has been a
proliferation of “… books, articles, and seminars on time management, along with their
assertions, prescriptions and anecdotes” (Macan, 1994, p. 383). But what exactly is time
management? Despite the epidemic of time management training programs (Quirk, 1989),
there is currently a lack of agreement about the definition of time management and a dearth
of literature summarizing time management across disciplines. Furthermore, Hellsten (2005)
has argued that there is a lack of a theoretical model of time management. Although selfreport
instruments purporting to examine time management exist in several disciplines, to
date, there has been no published psychometric review or comparison of these instruments
for assessing generic time management.
2. Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the existing time management literature. More
specifically, the purpose of this chapter is: (a) to describe the current state of time
management and the rationale for time management training including the populations for
whom recent time management literature is written; (b) to comprehensively review existing
published and peer-reviewed literature relating to the concept of time management in order
to delineate the skills and behaviors associated with time management identified in the
education, industrial, administrative, management, coaching, and sport and exercise
psychology domains; and (c) to identify and critically examine commercially available and
research-based instruments examining time management.
3. Methodology
Due to the threefold purpose of this chapter, three separate but related review stages were
utilized. First, in order to describe the current state of time management, a critical and
rigorous review of the current research literature was conducted. The review focused on the time management skills and behaviors identified in the education, industrial,
management, administrative, coaching, and sport and exercise psychology domains.
Articles were located using both database searches (e.g., ERIC, ProQuest Education,
PSYCHINFO, etc.) and manual reviews of references. Keywords used in the search
included time management, time management skills, time management behaviors, time
management training programs, planning, scheduling, and organizing. The search located
84 empirical peer reviewed papers as well as generic and popular books and articles on
time management. The initial search focused on literature published in the English
language prior to December 2005.
Second, in order to ensure the review was current, a second review following the process
specified above but restricted to published journal articles since the year 2000, was repeated
in September of 2011. Using the keywords Time Management, 993 journal articles were
identified. Of these articles, 35 abstracts were initially selected for closer review. Of the 35
abstracts identified, 12 articles were deemed relevant. Hand searches of the reference list of
these 12 relevant articles identified an additional 4 relevant articles. Thus, the second review
added 16 articles to the 84 previously identified in the first review for an overall total of 100
empirical peer reviewed papers and generic and popular books and articles on time
management. Of the 16 articles identified in the second review, 2 were classified as popular
literature with the remaining 14 articles classified as research articles.
The third review stage involved a literature review of existing instruments assessing time
management in the industrial, administrative, management, education, coaching, and sport
and exercise psychology domains. Sources of the review included database searches, crossreferencing
of journal articles, and hand searches of relevant journals. Similar to the reviews
of time management skills and behaviors, the references for each article found during the
database search were reviewed for additional articles that by their title, use within the
article, or by referencing appeared to be related to time management for exercise. Key words
used in the review included time, time management skills and behaviors, time management
questionnaires, and time management instruments. Sixteen commercially available
instruments were identified that used time or time management as descriptors and ten
additional research studies involved the development of a time related assessment
instrument. Each of the identified instruments were then critically reviewed following the
work of Hellsten (2005) including assessment of the psychometric characteristics and utility
of the instruments to assess time management skills and behaviors.
Results
What is time management?
Time management has been described using many different terms including spontaneity,
balance, flexibility, and having control over time (Lakein, 1973). Time management has also
been characterized as a habit developed only through determination and practice (Simpson,
1978), as prioritizing and respecting those priorities (Soucie, 1986), and as setting priorities
and scheduling tasks (Jordan et al., 1989). Time management can also be considered as the
process by which an individual more effectively accomplishes tasks and goals (Schuler,
1979), a process by which an individual obtains control over the timing and the content of what he/she does (Oncken & Wass, 1985), and as what can be accomplished with time
(Mackenzie, 1972, 1975, 1990).
In order to utilize time effectively, individuals must first be able to predict how much time is
needed for the activity (Kelly, 2002). An individual will become effective in using their time
only when the individual clearly knows what they want to do, what they need to do, and for
which specific target date (Soucie, 1986). Individuals need to become more disciplined in
their use of time by respecting their established priorities while minimizing distractions
from others as well as from situations that have the ability to displace priorities in terms of
time and energy (Soucie, 1986).
According to Crutsinger (1994), time management involves determining what one should
do by setting goals, deciding which events are the most important and realizing that other
activities will have to be scheduled around them (prioritizing), making decisions about how
much time to allow for certain tasks (time estimation), adjusting to the unexpected (problem
solving), reconsidering goals and priorities on a regular basis (evaluation), and observing
patterns and trends in behavior.
There is debate over exactly what skills and behaviors constitute effective time management.
For example, Shipman (1983) identified six principles for effective time management. These
principles included being aware of self, structuring time appropriately, setting goals and
priorities, increasing personal efficiency and effectiveness, scheduling time for activity, and
scheduling relaxation time. Time management behaviors have more recently been
characterized as making lists, organizing, goal setting, keeping and routinely evaluating
one’s schedule, and breaking down tasks into simpler parts (Kelly, 2002).
Empirical research investigating the effects of time management behavior has identified
three broad clusters of behaviors. These behaviors include setting goals and priorities,
engaging in the mechanics of time management, and having a preference for organization
(Adams & Jex, 1999; Macan, 1994, 1996; Macan et al., 1990). However, seven time
management skills or behaviors can be considered essential to effective time management
due to their repetitive prominence in the literature: (a) time analysis, (b) planning, (c) goal
setting, (d) prioritizing, (e) scheduling, (f) organizing, and (g) establishing new and
improved time habits (Barkas, 1984; Feeny Jonson, 2002; Hellsten & Rogers, 2009; Jorde,
1982; Lakein, 1973; Mackenzie, 1972, 1975, 1990; Morris, 2001; Woolfolk & Woolfolk, 1986).
Although, time management documentation activities such as making lists, writing down
goals, and utilizing calendars have been identified by many authors as necessary for
effective time management, they tend to cross all seven skill areas. Table 1 provides a
summary of the characteristics of time management behaviors and skills as identified by
empirical research and popular books, articles, and multimedia on time management.
Empirical studies of time management:
Of the 100 located studies or articles involving time management, 38 were empirical studies
involving qualitative or quantitative time management research. Five studies examined the
time management behaviors and practices of specific populations using qualitative
methodologies including the use of time diaries (Hessing, 1994; Ho, 2003; Kotter, 1980;
Winter et al., 1993; Yoels & Clair, 1994). Twenty-seven studies examined time management
behaviors or practices in relation to other variables such as academic achievement, stress, or
creativity (Adams & Jex, 1997, 1999; Alay & Koçak, 2002; Anand, 2007; Britton & Tesser,
1991; Burt & Kemp, 1994; Cemaloglu & Filiz, 2010; Claessens et al., 2004; Francis-Smythe &
Robertson, 1999; Garcia-Ros et al., 2004; Hellsten & Rogers, 2009; Jex & Elacqua, 1999;
Kearns & Gardiner, 2007; Lahmers & Zulauf, 2000; Lang et al., 1990; Lay & Schouwenburg,
1993; Macan et al., 1990; Misra & McKean, 2000; Mpofu et al., 1996; Mudrack, 1997; Shahani
et al., 1993; Simons & Galotti, 1992; Swart et al., 2010; Trockel et al., 2000; van de Meer, et al.,
2010; Williams et al., 1995; Zampetakis et al., 2010). One study (Trueman & Hartley, 1996)
compared the effectiveness of time management skills between mature and traditional entry
university students. Five studies examined the effectiveness of time management training
programs (DiPipi-Hoy et al., 2009; Macan, 1994, 1996; Orpen, 1993; Woolfolk & Woolfolk,
1986). More than half of the studies examined a university or college student sample.
Qualitative time management studies:
In reviewing the literature on time management skills and behaviors, five studies were
identified which examined the time management behaviors of specific populations using
qualitative methodologies. Two studies examined time management techniques in relation
to home-based work (Hessing, 1994; Winter et al., 1993). Of these two studies, one study
exclusively examined women (Hessing, 1994). Two studies examine university populations
including the time management strategies of medical residents (Yoels & Clair, 1994) and the
time management of undergraduate English project students (Ho, 2003). The fourth study
examined the work habits of successful general managers (Kotter, 1980). There were several
common time management techniques identified by these populations including time
manipulation, planning ahead, task delegation, prioritization, synchronization and
routinization of activities, reallocation of personal time, goal setting, agenda making, and
the utilization of a time diary. Many of the strategies that were identified by the more
unique samples of dual career women, medical residents, and home based workers parallel
each other and the strategies identified by university student samples.
Quantitative time management studies:
The literature search identified 27 studies that examined the relationship between time
management behaviors and other variables such as academic achievement, stress, and
creativity. Most studies were conducted with university or college student populations and
most studies utilized some form of questionnaire or self-report measure to assess time
management. Alternatives to self-report measures included self-reported time usage
questions (e.g., how many hours during a typical weekday, do you…”; Anand, 2007) and
observational checklists (DiPipi-Hoy et al., 2009). Results from these studies showed that
self-reports of time management behaviors or skills were often related to academic
achievement; effective time management lower stress and strain; good time managers
preferred planning and organization; older subjects and women engaged more frequently in
planning and time management behaviors; individuals who indicated that they set goals
and priorities tended toward the Type A behavior pattern; and individuals who had
previous time management training engaged more frequently in time management
behaviors. In addition, inefficient time use, lack of control over time demands, and
inadequate amounts of time appeared to have a negative impact on individuals’
psychological resources.
When measured, perceived control of time was consistently identified as the strongest
correlate of all the time management behaviors. This finding indicates the importance of distinguishing between the different time management constructs (Macan et al., 1990).
However, the awareness and documentation of time that are associated with time
management strategies may lead some people to experience less perceived control over their
time. Adams and Jex (1999) suggested that the actions of time management such as making
lists and scheduling may lead some people to experience less perceived control over their
time. When people are not meeting their time demands, uncompleted tasks and missed
appointments on a schedule may lead to lower perceptions of control over time. Claessens et
al. (2004) also demonstrated that planning behavior positively affected perceived control of
time but stressed the importance of examining planning behavior and job characteristics.
Studies examining the effectiveness of time management
The empirical literature review identified five studies that examined the effectiveness of
time management training programs. Three of the studies examined employed adults (i.e.,
Macan, 1994; 1996; Orpen, 1993) while Woolfolk and Woolfolk (1986) examined pre-service
teachers and DiPipi-Hoy and colleagues (2009) examined adolescents with exceptionalities.
The DiPippi-Hoy et al. (2009) study is unique in the population of study and the
observational checklist method used to assess time management behaviors. Results
suggested that participants increased their time management at work and generalized their
skills to the community site following intervention (Di-Pippi-Hoy et al., 2009). Results of the
two early studies (i.e., Orpen, 1993; Woolfolk & Woolfolk, 1986) which focused on the time
management work by Lakein (1973) indicated that time management training has significant
immediate and long-term effects on time management attitudes and behaviors and that
those who receive time management training rate their time management effectiveness more
highly than those who do not. In comparison, two later studies (i.e., Macan, 1994; 1996)
which utilized the Time Management Behavior scale developed by Macan et al. (1990) found
time management training to be only minimally related to subsequent use of time
management behaviors. However, individuals who participated in a time management
program did perceive more control over their time after the program. Perceived control over
time was related to positive outcomes: Individuals who perceived having more control over
their time reported fewer job induced tensions, fewer stresses, and greater job satisfaction
than individuals who did not perceive themselves as having control over their time.
Furthermore, the 1994 study by Macan was the first study to empirically examine the
relationship between time management behaviors and the Theory of Planned Behavior
(TPB) by investigating the relationships between the elements of the TPB and perceived
control over time. This model suggested that learning time management skills and
consequently engaging in time management behaviors would lead to a greater perception of
control over time. Support was found for the process model of time management.
Review of time management instruments:
Sixteen commercially available instruments were identified that used time or time
management as descriptors (Blewitt-Dombrowski, 1990; Canfield, 1976; 1981; Cooper et al.,
1988; Crosby et al., 1985; Fimian, 1988; Kaplan et al., 1988; Kirkpatrick, 1995; Morreau &
Bruininks, 1991; Parry, 1985; People Builders International, Inc.; 1993; Pintrich et al., 1991;
Training House Inc., 1995; Weinstein, 1987; Weinstein & Palmer, 1995; Wonderlic Inc.
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References:
Achor, S. (2010). The happiness advantage: The seven principles of positive psychology that fuel success and performance at work. New York, NY: Crown Publishing Group. Beamon, K., & Bell, P. A. (2006). Academics versus athletics: An examination of the effects of background and socialization on African American male students athletes. The Social Science Journal 43, 393-403. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dudley, B.S., Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (1997). Using cooperative learning to enhance the academic and social experiences of freshman student athletes. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137(4), 449-459. Edwards, H. (2000). Crisis of Black athletes on the eve of the 21st century. Society, 73, 9-13. Figler, S. (1987). Academic advising for athletes. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 11(1/2), 74-81. Gaston, J. C. (1986). The destruction of the young black male: Impact of popular culture and organized sports. Journal of Black Studies, 16, 369-384. Gaston-Gayles, J. L. (2004). Examining Academic and Athletic Motivation Among Student Athletes at a Division University. Journal of College Student Development, 45(4), 75-83. Harrison, K. (2000). Black athletes at the millennium. Society, 37, 35-39. Hollis, L. P. (2001). Serve Ace? Which academic services and resources truly benefit student athletes. Journal of College Student Retention, 3(3), 265-284. Holstein, J. A. & Gubrium, J. F. (1995). The active interview. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Kissinger, D. B., & Miller, M. T. (2009). College Student - Athletes. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing Inc. Lapchick, R. (2010). Keeping score when it counts: Graduation rates for the 2010 NCAA men’s division I basketball tournament teams. Retrieved on 15 July, 2010 from: http://www.tidesport.org/ncaagraduationrates.html Lincoln, Y. & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Luthans, F. (2002), The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23: 695–706. doi: 10.1002/job.165 Martin, B. E. & Harris, F. (2006). Examining Productive Conceptions of Masculinities: Lessons Learned from Academically Driven African American Male StudentAthletes. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 14(3), 359-378. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3rd ed.). London: Sage. Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. National Collegiate Athletic Association (1984). Study of freshman eligibility standards: Executive summary. Reston, VA: Social Sciences Division, Advanced Technology, Inc. National Collegiate Athletic Association (2010). Graduation Rates Report. Indianapolis, IN. Oseguera, L. (2010). Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education. Patton, M. Q. (2001). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pollio, H. R., Henley, T., & Thompson, C. B. (1997). The phenomenology of everyday life. New York: Cambridge University Press. Roper, L.D. & McKenzie, A. (1988). Academic advising: a developmental model for black student-athletes. NASPA Journal, 26(2), 91-98. Rasmussen, J. (2010). An investigation of scholar-baller and non scholar-baller division I football student-athletes' academic, athletic, intrinsic. Shulman, J. L., & Bowen, W. G. (2002). The game of life: College sports and educational values. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S., Chavous, T. M., Shelton , J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). The multidimensional inventory of Black identity: Construct validity and reliability. Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 73(4), 805-815. Smith, R. A. (1988). Sports & Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. Steeg, J., Upton, J., Bohn, P., & Berkowitz, S. (2008, November 19). College athletes studies guided towards "major in eligibility . USA Today. Thomas, S. P., & Pollio, H. R. (2002). Listening to patients: A phenomenological approach to nursing research and practice. New York: Springer. Thompson, C. J., Locander, W. B., & Pollio, H. R. (1989). Putting consumer experience back into consumer research: The philosophy and method of existential phenomenology. Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 133-146. Van Maanen, John (1983). Qualitative Methodology. Beverly Hills: Sage. Watterson, J. S. (2000). College Football. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.
Preface:
The lack of time is worldwide dispersed phenomenon and it takes different forms in
all human being activities: industrial management, education, administration,
personal duties etc. The time management can be assumed as a process for achieving
personal goals and tasks.
It is easy to claim that the time allocation is a key factor for achieving every personal
goal. Thus, it is important task to identify common requirements, constraints and
relationships, which deal with the allocation if time per activities, concerning different
domains of the society.
This book does not claim that it contains keys for solving the problem of optimal time
management. However, this book is an attempt to summarize the current
achievements and technologies, which are used for planning and managing activities
nowadays, having in mind that all of them are functions of time.
The content of the book tries to summarize the understanding of the time
management, accommodated in the corresponding papers. It illustrates by success
stories the importance and viability of the time management. Illustrations with formal
models for optimal management of time are given. Several cases for time allocation
between sport and academic duties are provided.
The book is a collection of results from a wide range of specialists, competing with the
time requirements. The diversity of the cases concerned is a prerequisite to wide the
potential audience of readers, which face the problem of lack of time in their everyday
activities.
Finally, I would like to add my personal conclusions about the preparation of this
publication. The book is published under the framework of Open Access distribution.
This will give the opportunity for broad access of the scientific community worldwide.
I am grateful to the INTECH publishing department for their kind support and
assistance, which help me for the preparation and edition of this book.
'''Survey: Time Management'''
'''What Do We Know About Time Management?
A Review of the Literature and a Psychometric
Critique of Instruments Assessing
Time Management'''
1. Introduction
Lack of time is a common complaint in western society. In response, there has been a
proliferation of “… books, articles, and seminars on time management, along with their
assertions, prescriptions and anecdotes” (Macan, 1994, p. 383). But what exactly is time
management? Despite the epidemic of time management training programs (Quirk, 1989),
there is currently a lack of agreement about the definition of time management and a dearth
of literature summarizing time management across disciplines. Furthermore, Hellsten (2005)
has argued that there is a lack of a theoretical model of time management. Although selfreport
instruments purporting to examine time management exist in several disciplines, to
date, there has been no published psychometric review or comparison of these instruments
for assessing generic time management.
2. Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the existing time management literature. More
specifically, the purpose of this chapter is: (a) to describe the current state of time
management and the rationale for time management training including the populations for
whom recent time management literature is written; (b) to comprehensively review existing
published and peer-reviewed literature relating to the concept of time management in order
to delineate the skills and behaviors associated with time management identified in the
education, industrial, administrative, management, coaching, and sport and exercise
psychology domains; and (c) to identify and critically examine commercially available and
research-based instruments examining time management.
3. Methodology
Due to the threefold purpose of this chapter, three separate but related review stages were
utilized. First, in order to describe the current state of time management, a critical and
rigorous review of the current research literature was conducted. The review focused on the time management skills and behaviors identified in the education, industrial,
management, administrative, coaching, and sport and exercise psychology domains.
Articles were located using both database searches (e.g., ERIC, ProQuest Education,
PSYCHINFO, etc.) and manual reviews of references. Keywords used in the search
included time management, time management skills, time management behaviors, time
management training programs, planning, scheduling, and organizing. The search located
84 empirical peer reviewed papers as well as generic and popular books and articles on
time management. The initial search focused on literature published in the English
language prior to December 2005.
Second, in order to ensure the review was current, a second review following the process
specified above but restricted to published journal articles since the year 2000, was repeated
in September of 2011. Using the keywords Time Management, 993 journal articles were
identified. Of these articles, 35 abstracts were initially selected for closer review. Of the 35
abstracts identified, 12 articles were deemed relevant. Hand searches of the reference list of
these 12 relevant articles identified an additional 4 relevant articles. Thus, the second review
added 16 articles to the 84 previously identified in the first review for an overall total of 100
empirical peer reviewed papers and generic and popular books and articles on time
management. Of the 16 articles identified in the second review, 2 were classified as popular
literature with the remaining 14 articles classified as research articles.
The third review stage involved a literature review of existing instruments assessing time
management in the industrial, administrative, management, education, coaching, and sport
and exercise psychology domains. Sources of the review included database searches, crossreferencing
of journal articles, and hand searches of relevant journals. Similar to the reviews
of time management skills and behaviors, the references for each article found during the
database search were reviewed for additional articles that by their title, use within the
article, or by referencing appeared to be related to time management for exercise. Key words
used in the review included time, time management skills and behaviors, time management
questionnaires, and time management instruments. Sixteen commercially available
instruments were identified that used time or time management as descriptors and ten
additional research studies involved the development of a time related assessment
instrument. Each of the identified instruments were then critically reviewed following the
work of Hellsten (2005) including assessment of the psychometric characteristics and utility
of the instruments to assess time management skills and behaviors.
Results
What is time management?
Time management has been described using many different terms including spontaneity,
balance, flexibility, and having control over time (Lakein, 1973). Time management has also
been characterized as a habit developed only through determination and practice (Simpson,
1978), as prioritizing and respecting those priorities (Soucie, 1986), and as setting priorities
and scheduling tasks (Jordan et al., 1989). Time management can also be considered as the
process by which an individual more effectively accomplishes tasks and goals (Schuler,
1979), a process by which an individual obtains control over the timing and the content of what he/she does (Oncken & Wass, 1985), and as what can be accomplished with time
(Mackenzie, 1972, 1975, 1990).
In order to utilize time effectively, individuals must first be able to predict how much time is
needed for the activity (Kelly, 2002). An individual will become effective in using their time
only when the individual clearly knows what they want to do, what they need to do, and for
which specific target date (Soucie, 1986). Individuals need to become more disciplined in
their use of time by respecting their established priorities while minimizing distractions
from others as well as from situations that have the ability to displace priorities in terms of
time and energy (Soucie, 1986).
According to Crutsinger (1994), time management involves determining what one should
do by setting goals, deciding which events are the most important and realizing that other
activities will have to be scheduled around them (prioritizing), making decisions about how
much time to allow for certain tasks (time estimation), adjusting to the unexpected (problem
solving), reconsidering goals and priorities on a regular basis (evaluation), and observing
patterns and trends in behavior.
There is debate over exactly what skills and behaviors constitute effective time management.
For example, Shipman (1983) identified six principles for effective time management. These
principles included being aware of self, structuring time appropriately, setting goals and
priorities, increasing personal efficiency and effectiveness, scheduling time for activity, and
scheduling relaxation time. Time management behaviors have more recently been
characterized as making lists, organizing, goal setting, keeping and routinely evaluating
one’s schedule, and breaking down tasks into simpler parts (Kelly, 2002).
Empirical research investigating the effects of time management behavior has identified
three broad clusters of behaviors. These behaviors include setting goals and priorities,
engaging in the mechanics of time management, and having a preference for organization
(Adams & Jex, 1999; Macan, 1994, 1996; Macan et al., 1990). However, seven time
management skills or behaviors can be considered essential to effective time management
due to their repetitive prominence in the literature: (a) time analysis, (b) planning, (c) goal
setting, (d) prioritizing, (e) scheduling, (f) organizing, and (g) establishing new and
improved time habits (Barkas, 1984; Feeny Jonson, 2002; Hellsten & Rogers, 2009; Jorde,
1982; Lakein, 1973; Mackenzie, 1972, 1975, 1990; Morris, 2001; Woolfolk & Woolfolk, 1986).
Although, time management documentation activities such as making lists, writing down
goals, and utilizing calendars have been identified by many authors as necessary for
effective time management, they tend to cross all seven skill areas. Table 1 provides a
summary of the characteristics of time management behaviors and skills as identified by
empirical research and popular books, articles, and multimedia on time management.
Empirical studies of time management:
Of the 100 located studies or articles involving time management, 38 were empirical studies
involving qualitative or quantitative time management research. Five studies examined the
time management behaviors and practices of specific populations using qualitative
methodologies including the use of time diaries (Hessing, 1994; Ho, 2003; Kotter, 1980;
Winter et al., 1993; Yoels & Clair, 1994). Twenty-seven studies examined time management
behaviors or practices in relation to other variables such as academic achievement, stress, or
creativity (Adams & Jex, 1997, 1999; Alay & Koçak, 2002; Anand, 2007; Britton & Tesser,
1991; Burt & Kemp, 1994; Cemaloglu & Filiz, 2010; Claessens et al., 2004; Francis-Smythe &
Robertson, 1999; Garcia-Ros et al., 2004; Hellsten & Rogers, 2009; Jex & Elacqua, 1999;
Kearns & Gardiner, 2007; Lahmers & Zulauf, 2000; Lang et al., 1990; Lay & Schouwenburg,
1993; Macan et al., 1990; Misra & McKean, 2000; Mpofu et al., 1996; Mudrack, 1997; Shahani
et al., 1993; Simons & Galotti, 1992; Swart et al., 2010; Trockel et al., 2000; van de Meer, et al.,
2010; Williams et al., 1995; Zampetakis et al., 2010). One study (Trueman & Hartley, 1996)
compared the effectiveness of time management skills between mature and traditional entry
university students. Five studies examined the effectiveness of time management training
programs (DiPipi-Hoy et al., 2009; Macan, 1994, 1996; Orpen, 1993; Woolfolk & Woolfolk,
1986). More than half of the studies examined a university or college student sample.
Qualitative time management studies:
In reviewing the literature on time management skills and behaviors, five studies were
identified which examined the time management behaviors of specific populations using
qualitative methodologies. Two studies examined time management techniques in relation
to home-based work (Hessing, 1994; Winter et al., 1993). Of these two studies, one study
exclusively examined women (Hessing, 1994). Two studies examine university populations
including the time management strategies of medical residents (Yoels & Clair, 1994) and the
time management of undergraduate English project students (Ho, 2003). The fourth study
examined the work habits of successful general managers (Kotter, 1980). There were several
common time management techniques identified by these populations including time
manipulation, planning ahead, task delegation, prioritization, synchronization and
routinization of activities, reallocation of personal time, goal setting, agenda making, and
the utilization of a time diary. Many of the strategies that were identified by the more
unique samples of dual career women, medical residents, and home based workers parallel
each other and the strategies identified by university student samples.
Quantitative time management studies:
The literature search identified 27 studies that examined the relationship between time
management behaviors and other variables such as academic achievement, stress, and
creativity. Most studies were conducted with university or college student populations and
most studies utilized some form of questionnaire or self-report measure to assess time
management. Alternatives to self-report measures included self-reported time usage
questions (e.g., how many hours during a typical weekday, do you…”; Anand, 2007) and
observational checklists (DiPipi-Hoy et al., 2009). Results from these studies showed that
self-reports of time management behaviors or skills were often related to academic
achievement; effective time management lower stress and strain; good time managers
preferred planning and organization; older subjects and women engaged more frequently in
planning and time management behaviors; individuals who indicated that they set goals
and priorities tended toward the Type A behavior pattern; and individuals who had
previous time management training engaged more frequently in time management
behaviors. In addition, inefficient time use, lack of control over time demands, and
inadequate amounts of time appeared to have a negative impact on individuals’
psychological resources.
When measured, perceived control of time was consistently identified as the strongest
correlate of all the time management behaviors. This finding indicates the importance of distinguishing between the different time management constructs (Macan et al., 1990).
However, the awareness and documentation of time that are associated with time
management strategies may lead some people to experience less perceived control over their
time. Adams and Jex (1999) suggested that the actions of time management such as making
lists and scheduling may lead some people to experience less perceived control over their
time. When people are not meeting their time demands, uncompleted tasks and missed
appointments on a schedule may lead to lower perceptions of control over time. Claessens et
al. (2004) also demonstrated that planning behavior positively affected perceived control of
time but stressed the importance of examining planning behavior and job characteristics.
Studies examining the effectiveness of time management
The empirical literature review identified five studies that examined the effectiveness of
time management training programs. Three of the studies examined employed adults (i.e.,
Macan, 1994; 1996; Orpen, 1993) while Woolfolk and Woolfolk (1986) examined pre-service
teachers and DiPipi-Hoy and colleagues (2009) examined adolescents with exceptionalities.
The DiPippi-Hoy et al. (2009) study is unique in the population of study and the
observational checklist method used to assess time management behaviors. Results
suggested that participants increased their time management at work and generalized their
skills to the community site following intervention (Di-Pippi-Hoy et al., 2009). Results of the
two early studies (i.e., Orpen, 1993; Woolfolk & Woolfolk, 1986) which focused on the time
management work by Lakein (1973) indicated that time management training has significant
immediate and long-term effects on time management attitudes and behaviors and that
those who receive time management training rate their time management effectiveness more
highly than those who do not. In comparison, two later studies (i.e., Macan, 1994; 1996)
which utilized the Time Management Behavior scale developed by Macan et al. (1990) found
time management training to be only minimally related to subsequent use of time
management behaviors. However, individuals who participated in a time management
program did perceive more control over their time after the program. Perceived control over
time was related to positive outcomes: Individuals who perceived having more control over
their time reported fewer job induced tensions, fewer stresses, and greater job satisfaction
than individuals who did not perceive themselves as having control over their time.
Furthermore, the 1994 study by Macan was the first study to empirically examine the
relationship between time management behaviors and the Theory of Planned Behavior
(TPB) by investigating the relationships between the elements of the TPB and perceived
control over time. This model suggested that learning time management skills and
consequently engaging in time management behaviors would lead to a greater perception of
control over time. Support was found for the process model of time management.
Review of time management instruments:
Sixteen commercially available instruments were identified that used time or time
management as descriptors (Blewitt-Dombrowski, 1990; Canfield, 1976; 1981; Cooper et al.,
1988; Crosby et al., 1985; Fimian, 1988; Kaplan et al., 1988; Kirkpatrick, 1995; Morreau &
Bruininks, 1991; Parry, 1985; People Builders International, Inc.; 1993; Pintrich et al., 1991;
Training House Inc., 1995; Weinstein, 1987; Weinstein & Palmer, 1995; Wonderlic Inc.
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